Facilitators, barriers, and key influencers of breastfeeding among low birthweight infants: a qualitative study in India, Malawi, and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Low birthweight (LBW) infants are at increased risk of morbidity and mortality. Exclusive breastfeeding up to six months is recommended to help them thrive through infection prevention, growth improvements, and enhancements in neurodevelopment. However, limited data exist on the feeding experiences of LBW infants, their caregivers and key community influencers. The qualitative component of the Low Birthweight Infant Feeding Exploration (LIFE) study aimed to understand practices, facilitators, and barriers to optimal feeding options in the first six months for LBW infants in low-resource settings. METHODS: This study was conducted in four sites in India, Malawi, and Tanzania from July 2019 to August 2020. We conducted 37 focus group discussions with mothers and family members of LBW infants and community leaders and 142 in-depth interviews with healthcare providers, government officials, and supply chain and donor human milk (DHM) experts. Data were analyzed using a framework approach. RESULTS: All participants believed that mother's own milk was best for LBW infants. Direct breastfeeding was predominant and feeding expressed breast milk and infant formula were rare. DHM was a new concept for most. Adequate maternal nutrition, lactation support, and privacy in the facility aided breastfeeding and expression, but perceived insufficient milk, limited feeding counseling, and infant immaturity were common barriers. Most believed that DHM uptake could be enabled through community awareness by overcoming misconceptions, safety concerns, and perceived family resistance. CONCLUSION: This study fills an evidence gap in LBW infant feeding practices and their facilitators and barriers in resource-limited settings. LBW infants face unique feeding challenges such as poor latching and tiring at the breast. Similarly, their mothers are faced with numerous difficulties, including attainment of adequate milk supply, breast pain and emotional stress. Lactation support and feeding counseling could address obstacles faced by mothers and infants by providing psychosocial, verbal and physical support to empower mothers with skills, knowledge and confidence and facilitate earlier, more and better breast milk feeding. Findings on DHM are critical to the future development of human milk banks and highlight the need to solicit partnership from stakeholders in the community and health system.

Cultural brokering in pregnancy care: A critical review.

People who speak languages other than English face structural barriers in accessing the US healthcare system. With a growing number of people living in countries other than their countries of birth, the impact of language and cultural differences between patients and care teams on quality care is global. Cultural brokering presents a unique opportunity to enhance communication and trust between patients and clinicians from different cultural backgrounds during pregnancy care-a critical window for engaging families in the healthcare system. This critical review aims to synthesize literature describing cultural brokering in pregnancy care. We searched keywords relating to cultural brokering, pregnancy, and language in PubMed, Embase, and CINAHL and traced references of screened articles. Our search identified 33 articles. We found that cultural brokering is not clearly defined in the current literature. Few of the articles provided information about language concordance between cultural brokers and patients or clinicians. No article described the impact of cultural brokering on health outcomes. Facilitators of cultural brokering included: interprofessional collaboration within the care team, feeling a family connection between the cultural broker and patients, and cultivating trust between the cultural broker and clinicians. Barriers to cultural brokering included: misunderstanding the responsibilities, difficulty maintaining personal boundaries, and limited availability and accessibility of cultural brokers. We propose cultural brokering as interactions that cover four key aims: (1) language support; (2) bridging cultural differences; (3) social support and advocacy; and (4) navigation of the healthcare system. Clinicians, researchers, and policymakers should develop consistent language around cultural brokering in pregnancy care and examine the impact of cultural brokers on health outcomes.

Facility-based care for moderately low birthweight infants in India, Malawi, and Tanzania.

Globally, increasing rates of facility-based childbirth enable early intervention for small vulnerable newborns. We describe health system-level inputs, current feeding, and discharge practices for moderately low birthweight (MLBW) infants (1500-<2500g) in resource-constrained settings. The Low Birthweight Infant Feeding Exploration study is a mixed methods observational study in 12 secondary- and tertiary-level facilities in India, Malawi, and Tanzania. We analyzed data from baseline facility assessments and a prospective cohort of 148 MLBW infants from birth to discharge. Anthropometric measuring equipment (e.g., head circumference tapes, length boards), key medications (e.g., surfactant, parenteral nutrition), milk expression tools, and human milk alternatives (e.g., donor milk, formula) were not universally available. MLBW infants were preterm appropriate-for-gestational age (38.5%), preterm large-for-gestational age (3.4%), preterm small-for-gestational age (SGA) (11.5%), and term SGA (46.6%). The median length of stay was 3.1 days (IQR: 1.5, 5.7); 32.4% of infants were NICU-admitted and 67.6% were separated from mothers at least once. Exclusive breastfeeding was high (93.2%). Generalized group lactation support was provided; 81.8% of mother-infant dyads received at least one session and 56.1% had 2+ sessions. At the time of discharge, 5.1% of infants weighed >10% less than their birthweight; 18.8% of infants were discharged with weights below facility-specific policy [1800g in India, 1500g in Malawi, and 2000g in Tanzania]. Based on descriptive analysis, we found constraints in health system inputs which have the potential to hinder high quality care for MLBW infants. Targeted LBW-specific lactation support, discharge at appropriate weight, and access to feeding alternatives would position MLBW for successful feeding and growth post-discharge.

Feeding practices and growth patterns of moderately low birthweight infants in resource-limited settings: results from a multisite, longitudinal observational study.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the feeding profile of low birthweight (LBW) infants in the first half of infancy; and to examine growth patterns and early risk factors of poor 6-month growth outcomes. DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort study. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Stable, moderately LBW (1.50 to <2.50 kg) infants were enrolled at birth from 12 secondary/tertiary facilities in India, Malawi and Tanzania and visited nine times over 6 months. VARIABLES OF INTEREST: Key variables of interest included birth weight, LBW type (combination of preterm/term status and size-for-gestational age at birth), lactation practices and support, feeding profile, birthweight regain by 2 weeks of age and poor 6-month growth outcomes. RESULTS: Between 13 September 2019 and 27 January 2021, 1114 infants were enrolled, comprising 4 LBW types. 363 (37.3%) infants initiated early breast feeding and 425 (43.8%) were exclusively breastfed to 6 months. 231 (22.3%) did not regain birthweight by 2 weeks; at 6 months, 280 (32.6%) were stunted, 222 (25.8%) underweight and 88 (10.2%) wasted. Preterm-small-for-gestational age (SGA) infants had 1.89 (95% CI 1.37 to 2.62) and 2.32 (95% CI 1.48 to 3.62) times greater risks of being stunted and underweight at 6 months compared with preterm-appropriate-for-gestational age (AGA) infants. Term-SGA infants had 2.33 (95% CI 1.77 to 3.08), 2.89 (95% CI 1.97 to 4.24) and 1.99 (95% CI 1.13 to 3.51) times higher risks of being stunted, underweight and wasted compared with preterm-AGA infants. Those not regaining their birthweight by 2 weeks had 1.51 (95% CI 1.23 to 1.85) and 1.55 (95% CI 1.21 to 1.99) times greater risks of being stunted and underweight compared with infants regaining. CONCLUSION: LBW type, particularly SGA regardless of preterm or term status, and lack of birthweight regain by 2 weeks are important risk identification parameters. Early interventions are needed that include optimal feeding support, action-oriented growth monitoring and understanding of the needs and growth patterns of SGA infants to enable appropriate weight gain and proactive management of vulnerable infants. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04002908.

Improving communication and teamwork during labor: A feasibility, acceptability, and safety study.

BACKGROUND: TeamBirth was designed to promote best practices in shared decision making (SDM) among care teams for people giving birth. Although leading health organizations recommend SDM to address gaps in quality of care, these recommendations are not consistently implemented in labor and delivery. METHODS: We conducted a mixed-methods trial of TeamBirth among eligible laboring patients and all clinicians (nurses, midwives, and obstetricians) at four high-volume hospitals during April 2018 to September 2019. We used patient and clinician surveys, abstracted clinical data, and administrative claims to evaluate the feasibility, acceptability, and safety of TeamBirth. RESULTS: A total of 2,669 patients (approximately 28% of eligible delivery volume) and 375 clinicians (78% response rate) responded to surveys on their experiences with TeamBirth. Among patients surveyed, 89% reported experiencing at least one structured full care team conversation ("huddle") during labor and 77% reported experiencing multiple huddles. There was a significant relationship between the number of reported huddles and patient acceptability (P < 0.001), suggestive of a dose response. Among clinicians surveyed, 90% would recommend TeamBirth for use in other labor and delivery units. There were no significant changes in maternal and newborn safety measures. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing a care process that aims to improve communication and teamwork during labor with high fidelity is feasible. The process is acceptable to patients and clinicians and shows no negative effects on patient safety. Future work should evaluate the effectiveness of TeamBirth in improving care experience and health outcomes.

Implementation strategies within a complex environment: A qualitative study of a shared decision-making intervention during childbirth.

BACKGROUND: Shared decision-making (SDM) may improve communication, teamwork, patient experience, respectful maternity care, and safety during childbirth. Despite these benefits, SDM is not widely implemented, and strategies for implementing SDM interventions are not well described. We assessed the acceptability and feasibility of TeamBirth, an SDM solution that centers the birthing person in decision-making through simple tools that structure communication among the care team. We identified and described implementation strategies that bridge the gap between knowledge and practice. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative study among four hospitals in the United States to understand the acceptability and feasibility of TeamBirth. We interviewed 103 clinicians and conducted 16 focus group discussions with 52 implementers between June 2018 and October 2019. We drew on the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research to understand acceptability and feasibility, and to identify and describe the underlying contextual factors that affected implementation. RESULTS: We found that clinicians and implementers valued TeamBirth for promoting clarity about care plans among the direct care team and for centering the birthing person in decision-making. Contextual factors that affected implementation included strength of leadership, physician practice models, and quality improvement culture. Effective implementation strategies included regular data feedback and adapting "flexible" components of TeamBirth to the local context. DISCUSSION: By identifying and describing TeamBirth's contextual factors and implementation strategies, our findings can help bridge the implementation gap of SDM interventions. Our in-depth analysis offers tangible lessons for other labor and delivery unit leaders as they seek to integrate SDM practices in their own settings.

Mixed-methods, descriptive and observational cohort study examining feeding and growth patterns among low birthweight infants in India, Malawi and Tanzania: the LIFE study protocol.

INTRODUCTION: Ending preventable deaths of newborns and children under 5 will not be possible without evidence-based strategies addressing the health and care of low birthweight (LBW, <2.5 kg) infants. The majority of LBW infants are born in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and account for more than 60%-80% of newborn deaths. Feeding promotion tailored to meet the nutritional needs of LBW infants in LMICs may serve a crucial role in curbing newborn mortality rates and promoting growth. The Low Birthweight Infant Feeding Exploration (LIFE) study aims to establish foundational knowledge regarding optimal feeding options for LBW infants in low-resource settings throughout infancy. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: LIFE is a formative, multisite, observational cohort study involving 12 study facilities in India, Malawi and Tanzania, and using a convergent parallel, mixed-methods design. We assess feeding patterns, growth indicators, morbidity, mortality, child development and health system inputs that facilitate or hinder care and survival of LBW infants. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: This study was approved by 11 ethics committees in India, Malawi, Tanzania and the USA. The results will be disseminated through peer-reviewed publications and presentations targeting the global and local research, clinical, programme implementation and policy communities. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBERS: NCT04002908 and CTRI/2019/02/017475.

Strengthening data collection and use for quality improvement in primary care: the case of Costa Rica.

Costa Rica is a bright spot of primary healthcare (PHC) performance, providing first-contact accessibility and continuous, comprehensive, coordinated, and patient-centered care to its citizens. Previous research hypothesized that strong data collection and use for quality improvement are central to Costa Rica's success. Using qualitative data from 40 interviews with stakeholders across the Costa Rican healthcare system, this paper maps the various data streams at the PHC level and delineates how these data are used to make decisions around insuring and improving the quality of PHC delivery. We describe four main types of PHC data: individual patient data, population health data, national healthcare delivery data, and local supplementary healthcare delivery data. In particular, we find that the Healthcare Delivery Performance Index-a ranking of the nation's 106 Health Areas using 15 quality indicators-is utilized by Health Area Directors to create quality improvement initiatives, ranging from education and coaching to optimization of care delivery and coordination. By ranking Health Areas, the Index harnesses providers' intrinsic motivation to stimulate improvement without financial incentives. We detail how a strong culture of valuing data as a tool for improving population health and robust training for personnel have enabled effective data collection and use. However, we also find that the country's complex data systems create unnecessary duplication and can inhibit efficient data use. Costa Rica's experience with data collection, analysis, and use for quality improvement hold important lessons for PHC in other public sector systems.

Implementing sustainable primary healthcare reforms: strategies from Costa Rica.

As the world strives to achieve universal health coverage by 2030, countries must build robust healthcare systems founded on strong primary healthcare (PHC). In order to strengthen PHC, country governments need actionable guidance about how to implement health reform. Costa Rica is an example of a country that has taken concrete steps towards successfully improving PHC over the last two decades. In the 1990s, Costa Rica implemented three key reforms: governance restructuring, geographic empanelment, and multidisciplinary teams. To understand how Costa Rica implemented these reforms, we conducted a process evaluation based on a validated implementation science framework. We interviewed 39 key informants from across Costa Rica's healthcare system in order to understand how these reforms were implemented. Using the Exploration Preparation Implementation Sustainment (EPIS) framework, we coded the results to identify Costa Rica's key implementation strategies and explore underlying reasons for Costa Rica's success as well as ongoing challenges. We found that Costa Rica implemented PHC reforms through strong leadership, a compelling vision and deliberate implementation strategies such as building on existing knowledge, resources and infrastructure; bringing together key stakeholders and engaging deeply with communities. These reforms have led to dramatic improvements in health outcomes in the past 25 years. Our in-depth analysis of Costa Rica's specific implementation strategies offers tangible lessons and examples for other countries as they navigate the important but difficult work of strengthening PHC.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life: It Takes a System to Save a Mother.

BACKGROUND: Ending preventable maternal and newborn deaths remains a global health imperative under United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 3.1 and 3.2. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) was designed in 2011 within the Global Health Initiative as a public-private partnership between the U.S. government, Merck for Mothers, Every Mother Counts, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the government of Norway, and Project C.U.R.E. SMGL's initial aim was to dramatically reduce maternal mortality in low-resource, high-burden sub-Saharan African countries. SMGL used a district health systems strengthening approach combining both supply- and demand-side interventions to address the 3 key delays to accessing effective maternity care in a timely manner: delays in seeking, reaching, and receiving quality obstetric services. IMPLEMENTATION: The SMGL approach was piloted from June 2012 to December 2013 in 8 rural districts (4 each) in Uganda and Zambia with high levels of maternal deaths. Over the next 4 years, SMGL expanded to a total of 13 districts in Uganda and 18 in Zambia. SMGL built on existing host government and private maternal and child health platforms, and was aligned with and guided by Ugandan and Zambian maternal and newborn health policies and programs. A 35% reduction in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was achieved in SMGL-designated facilities in both countries during the first 12 months of implementation. RESULTS: Maternal health outcomes achieved after 5 years of implementation in the SMGL-designated pilot districts were substantial: a 44% reduction in both facility and districtwide MMR in Uganda, and a 38% decrease in facility and a 41% decline in districtwide MMR in Zambia. Facility deliveries increased by 47% (from 46% to 67%) in Uganda and by 44% (from 62% to 90%) in Zambia. Cesarean delivery rates also increased: by 71% in Uganda (from 5.3% to 9.0%) and by 79% in Zambia (from 2.7% to 4.8%). The average annual rate of reduction for maternal deaths in the SMGL-supported districts exceeded that found countrywide: 11.5% versus 3.5% in Uganda and 10.5% versus 2.8% in Zambia. The changes in stillbirth rates were significant (-13% in Uganda and -36% in Zambia) but those for pre-discharge neonatal mortality rates were not significant in either Uganda or Zambia. CONCLUSION: A district health systems strengthening approach to addressing the 3 delays to accessing timely, appropriate, high-quality care for pregnant women can save women's lives from preventable causes and reduce stillbirths. The approach appears not to significantly impact pre-discharge neonatal mortality.

Saving Lives Together: A Qualitative Evaluation of the Saving Mothers, Giving Life Public-Private Partnership.

BACKGROUND: Public-private partnerships (PPPs) have garnered appeal among governments around the world, making impressive contributions to health resource mobilization and improved health outcomes. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL), a PPP aimed at reducing maternal deaths, was born out of the need to mobilize new actors, capitalize on diverse strengths, and marshal additional resources. A qualitative study was initiated to examine how the SMGL partnership functioned to achieve mortality reduction goals and foster country ownership and sustainability. METHODS: We purposively selected 57 individuals from U.S. and global public and private partner organizations engaged in SMGL in Uganda and Zambia for qualitative in-depth interviews. Representative selection was based on participant knowledge of partner activities and engagement with the partnership at various points in time. Of those invited, 46 agreed to participate. Transcripts were double-coded, and discordant codes were resolved by consensus. RESULTS: Several recurring themes emerged from our study. Perceived strengths of the partnership included goal alignment; diversity in partner expertise; high-quality monitoring, evaluation, and learning; and strong leadership and country ownership. These strengths helped SMGL achieve its goals in reducing maternal and newborn mortality. However, uncertainty in roles and responsibilities, perceived power inequities between partners, bureaucratic processes, a compressed timeline, and limited representation from ministries of health in the SMGL governance structure were reported impediments. CONCLUSION: While SMGL faced many of the same challenges experienced by other PPPs, local counterparts and the SMGL partners were able to address many of these issues and the partnership was ultimately praised for being a successful model of interagency coordination. Efforts to facilitate country ownership and short-term financial sustainability have been put in place for many elements of the SMGL approach; however, long-term financing is still a challenge for SMGL as well as other global health PPPs. Addressing key impediments outlined in this study may improve long-term sustainability of similar PPPs.

Saving Mothers, Giving Life: It Takes a System to Save a Mother (Republication).

BACKGROUND: Ending preventable maternal and newborn deaths remains a global health imperative under United Nations Sustainable Development Goal targets 3.1 and 3.2. Saving Mothers, Giving Life (SMGL) was designed in 2011 within the Global Health Initiative as a public-private partnership between the U.S. government, Merck for Mothers, Every Mother Counts, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, the government of Norway, and Project C.U.R.E. SMGL's initial aim was to dramatically reduce maternal mortality in low-resource, high-burden sub-Saharan African countries. SMGL used a district health systems strengthening approach combining both supply- and demand-side interventions to address the 3 key delays to accessing effective maternity care in a timely manner: delays in seeking, reaching, and receiving quality obstetric services. IMPLEMENTATION: The SMGL approach was piloted from June 2012 to December 2013 in 8 rural districts (4 each) in Uganda and Zambia with high levels of maternal deaths. Over the next 4 years, SMGL expanded to a total of 13 districts in Uganda and 18 in Zambia. SMGL built on existing host government and private maternal and child health platforms, and was aligned with and guided by Ugandan and Zambian maternal and newborn health policies and programs. A 35% reduction in the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was achieved in SMGL-designated facilities in both countries during the first 12 months of implementation. RESULTS: Maternal health outcomes achieved after 5 years of implementation in the SMGL-designated pilot districts were substantial: a 44% reduction in both facility and districtwide MMR in Uganda, and a 38% decrease in facility and a 41% decline in districtwide MMR in Zambia. Facility deliveries increased by 47% (from 46% to 67%) in Uganda and by 44% (from 62% to 90%) in Zambia. Cesarean delivery rates also increased: by 71% in Uganda (from 5.3% to 9.0%) and by 79% in Zambia (from 2.7% to 4.8%). The average annual rate of reduction for maternal deaths in the SMGL-supported districts exceeded that found countrywide: 11.5% versus 3.5% in Uganda and 10.5% versus 2.8% in Zambia. The changes in stillbirth rates were significant (-13% in Uganda and -36% in Zambia) but those for pre-discharge neonatal mortality rates were not significant in either Uganda or Zambia. CONCLUSION: A district health systems strengthening approach to addressing the 3 delays to accessing timely, appropriate, high-quality care for pregnant women can save women's lives from preventable causes and reduce stillbirths. The approach appears not to significantly impact pre-discharge neonatal mortality.